Ryokai Mandalas

11th century; two hanging scrolls: gold and silver pigments on silk;
Pictured here: Kongokai, 352.5 x 299 cm;

Not pictured but in same display: Taizokai, 352 x 306.4 cm; Kojima-dera, Nara. National Treasure

The complex web of ideas and rich visual imagery of Esoteric Buddhism occurred rather early in Japan. The magnificent dry lacquer Fukukenjaku Kannon in the Hokke-do at Todai-ji (eighth century) or the earlier wall painting at the Horyu-ji of the Juichimen Kannon (seventh century, destroyed by fire) attest to its acceptance, if not popularity, before and during the early years of the Nara period. Gilt-bronze icons recovered from sacred Shinto locations also indicate the beginnings of the process of accommodation between Shinto and Buddhism that later in the Heian period manifested itself as a new category of syncretic religious imagery. The impressive wood statuary at Daian-ji, represented in this exhibition by the Yoryu Kannon, offers a glimpse of the scale of that acceptance.

Thus even before the monk Kukai returned from China late in 805 with Shingon sect experience and training and Saicho the year before with Tendai's teachings, scripture and imagery related to Esotericism was known. Yet it was not until these two strong-willed charismatic monks began teaching at their respective monastic centers, with official government approval, that its beliefs proliferated in the early Heian era. Shingon's popularity was propelled by Kukai's influence at the large temples in Nara and then among members of the court at the new capitol in Kyoto. His advocacy of using painted and sculpted imagery to explain arcane Shingon doctrine led to the production of schematized designs giving order to the cosmic philosophical structure of the Shingon belief system.

Known as mandalas, these compositions are diagrams or "blueprints" seeking to explain, pictorially, the path to enlightenment. By composing a concrete framework of deities and symbols together with the "courts" or realms they dwell in, artists illustrated the "directions" a believer might take toward realizing a particular goal. These paths were not random but followed the canons of Esoteric teachings as they had been introduced into Japan. Later in the Heian period new interpretations became normal in response to a strictly Japanese audience and to changes proposed by Japanese Shingon and Tendai masters through the centuries. These two sects also favored minor alterations of their own, reflecting their distinct interpretations of scriptural text.

On his return from China Kukai brought to Japan a pair of mandalas that have been lost. These were probably Kongokai (Diamond World) and Taizokai (Womb World) paintings and presumably had the same general appearance as the ninth-century pair still kept at To-ji in Kyoto, established by Kukai.2 The oldest pair of mandala paintings known in Japan, they are based on the Sutra of Dainichi and Diamond Crown Sutra respectively, both of which date to the late seventh or early eighth century. These To-ji Ryokai mandala paintings are rendered in vivid color and gold paint in a figural style reminiscent of that seen in the Juichimen Kannon in this exhibition.

The smaller size and coloration of the To-ji paintings, however, hardly prepares one for these monumental Ryokai mandalas, whose golden ranks of deities seem to emerge as low-intensity beacons glowing in the background of indigo-dyed silk. The third oldest pair of Ryokai images extant, these paintings are in much the best condition. And while they depart from the To-ji pair in style, detailing, and iconographic variants of some of the deities, their organizational schema is close.

Concisely stated, the Taizokai features a meditating Dainichi at its center surrounded by eight lotus petals with accompanying deities. Radiating from this central court above, below, and to either side are eleven ranks of deities occupying coherent iconographic spaces, each of which corresponds to the assemblies described in the Sutra of Dainichi. The Kongokai presents a different schema, showing a more complex cosmic world divided into nine rectangular areas, each of which is itself a mandala. Dainichi, the large seated figure showing the mudra of knowledge (chiken-in), presides in the upper court.

Because of their size, the paintings could only have been displayed in a large devotional hall, where they would have been suspended between columns in an open bay, facing one another. Raised platforms with ritual objects as well as smaller tables, sutra stands, and offerings of fruit, rice, and flowers were placed before each of the mandalas. Precisely how ceremonies were conducted remains unclear since so much of Shingon teaching ritual was orally transmitted or held in secrecy. In an adaptation of the traditional ceremonies introduced by Kukai, however, special rites using mandala paintings were conducted at both the palace and Esoteric temples. They are still held at To-ji and many Esoteric sanctuaries in Japan.

These paintings represent a period when Esoteric Buddhism of both Tendai and Shingon persuasions was enjoying its greatest patronage and popularity. The two scrolls are thought to have been given to the priest Shinko (9341004) by Emperor Ichijo (9801011) in gratitude for prayers seeking his recovery from illness around the turn of the century. While not the largest or oldest Ryokai mandala paintings extant in Japan, they are the most resplendent, illuminating not only spiritual doctrine but also an emerging Japanese style of expression in color and form. The two schema may be said to map the world of spirit (Diamond World) and matter (Womb World). Or, to state it more fully: "Broadly speaking, the Diamond World mandala represents reality in the buddha realm, the world of the unconditioned, the real, the universal, and the absolute. The Womb World mandala represents reality as it is revealed in the world of the conditioned, the individual, the particular, and the relative" (Elizabeth ten Grotenhuis, Japanese Mandalas: Representations of Sacred Geography). A mesmerizing display of elegant brushwork modulates effortlessly in describing figural form, and the hands of several artists can be distinguished among the literally thousands of figures and decorative panels. Although work on these mandalas must have been a collaborative effort, the talent of the artists and quality of the materials are consistent. For anyone wanting to study Heian iconography or painting style these mandalas remain a primary resource. Those who wish to understand why the Heian period is considered a golden age in Japanese cultural history need to look no further than this pair of paintings extolling the search for spiritual enlightenment.

The preceding entry, written by the Cleveland Museum of Art's Curator of Japanese and Korean Art Michael R. Cunningham and edited for use on this web site, is excerpted from the 268-page color-illustrated catalogue, Buddhist Treasures from Nara, available in hard or softcover at the museum stores.